The history behind Sophonisba and her world
Sophonisba (c. 235-203 BCE) was a Carthaginian noblewoman born into one of the most powerful families in Carthage. Her father, Hasdrubal Gisco, was a prominent military commander, and her family's connections linked her to some of the greatest figures of the ancient Mediterranean.
Living during the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), a period of unprecedented conflict between Carthage and Rome, Sophonisba became a significant political and diplomatic figure. Ancient sources describe her as extraordinarily intelligent, beautiful, and politically astute—qualities that made her both valuable and dangerous in the treacherous politics of her time.
Her most famous relationship was with Massinissa, a Numidian general whose support was crucial to Carthage's military efforts. Their relationship was both romantic and politically charged, representing the complex interplay of personal desire and political necessity in the ancient world.
Carthage was a major Mediterranean power, founded by the Phoenicians around 814 BCE in what is now Tunisia. By the time of Sophonisba, Carthage was a wealthy merchant republic with extensive commercial networks and military might. The city was renowned for its naval power, merchant fleet, and military innovations.
Carthaginian society was hierarchical but allowed more female agency than many contemporary civilizations. Women of noble birth could own property, conduct business, and exercise political influence. Religion, trade, and military strength were central to Carthaginian identity and values.
The Second Punic War was one of the most significant conflicts of the ancient Mediterranean, pitting Carthage against Rome for control of the region. This war was characterized by brilliant military strategies, massive armies, and consequences that shaped the future of Western civilization.
Our knowledge of Sophonisba and this historical period comes primarily from ancient historians and sources:
Livy
Roman historian, detailed accounts of the Punic Wars
Appian
Greek historian, comprehensive history of Rome
Plutarch
Biographer and essayist, Lives of great figures
Polybius
Greek historian, detailed military history
For those interested in deeper academic research on Sophonisba, Carthage, and the Second Punic War, we recommend:
c. 238 BCE
Massinissa born
c. 225-220 BCE
Sophonisba born (estimated 18-20 in 206 BCE)
215-213 BCE
Syphax allies with Rome, receives Roman military advisor Quintus Statorius
c. 213 BCE
Syphax first becomes interested in Sophonisba (she's ~11); sends handmaidens Tiziri and Tafsut as gifts
212 BCE
Sophonisba betrothed to Massinissa (she's ~12-14); he leaves for Iberia to fight for Carthage
211 BCE
Massinissa wins victories at Castulo and Ilorca (Spain)
208-207 BCE
Massinissa commands ALL Carthaginian cavalry in Spain
Early 206 BCE
Battle of Ilipa — Carthage loses Spain forever; 40,000 Carthaginian dead
Spring 206 BCE
Hasdrubal Gisco and Mago Barca flee to Gades (last Carthaginian city in Iberia)
Spring 206 BCE
Hasdrubal sails to Carthage
Late 206 BCE
Massinissa returns from Spain to find everything lost; briefly fights Mazaetullus; driven into mountains by Syphax
Summer 205 BCE
Mago ordered to attempt naval invasion of Italy with 21,000 troops, 7 elephants, 25 warships
204 BCE
Sophonisba and Syphax move court from Siga to Cirta as war shifts east
204 BCE
Scipio invades Africa; Massinissa joins with ~200 horsemen
203 BCE
Burning of the Camps (Scipio's espionage and night attack)
203 BCE
Battle of Great Plains — Syphax defeated
203 BCE
Battle of Cirta — Syphax captured (rode alone toward enemy, horse threw him)
203 BCE
Massinissa finds Sophonisba at Cirta palace; marries her same day
203 BCE
Scipio demands she be surrendered; Massinissa sends poison; she drinks it
203-202 BCE
Syphax sent to Rome in chains; dies in Tibur (Tivoli)
202 BCE
Battle of Zama — Hannibal defeated; Second Punic War ends
Explore scholarly articles and books on ancient Carthage, the Second Punic War, and women in antiquity through your local library or academic databases.
Visit our Chapters section for discussion questions that connect the novel to historical facts and scholarly interpretations.